C++ has Algol roots, but I think the C++ template metaprogramming style is an ur-language of its own. You could draw some parallels with ML maybe, but they came at it from a different direction.

I wonder if Occam is worth a mention? It doesn't feel like anything else here, and is playing with its hardware synthesis descendants on a FPGA is another "mind expanding" paradigm.

This article is full of gross mistakes. For example it claims that Caml is "Cambridge ML" which is ridiculously false. Fact check every sentence. Really sad.

I would refer to the world _cognate_[0]. 'Fundamental programming cognates' sounds cool as a uni course.

[0] https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cognate

I always enjoy these summaries. I took my bachelor of computer science in the early 1990s. It covered a language in most of these categories.

We didn't learn APL (Who is teaching the use of those custom keyboards to 100s of young students for one semester?)

The processing power of systems at the time made it clear which language classes were practically useful and usable for the time and which were not.

Prolog ran like a dog for even simple sets of logic.

We had the best internet access and pretty powerful desktop systems for the time.

I'm still curious why we didn't learn smalltalk. Could have been the difficulty of submitting and marking a system in a particular state rather than a file of code :)

Most old-timers here are familiar with a Prolog-variant: make. Anyone who's struggled over a complex Makefile wishes they had a more sane declarative language!

I’ve very slowly been trying to do the “99 problems” list in each of these languages groups. It’s been a fun experience seeing the differences. Though I think I would need a larger, less algorithmic, project to really see each group’s strengths. Especially for the OOP group.

One thing the article didn’t touch on was SmallTalk’s live visual environment. It’s not a normal source code / text language.

Reminds me of the six programming language memory models:

https://canonical.org/~kragen/memory-models/

It did my heart good to see Forth listed.